See also: Prior to the emergence of Kievan Rus' in the 9th century AD, the lands between the and were primarily populated by tribes. In the northern region around were the and neighboring, who occupied territories surrounding the headwaters of the,, and. To their north, in the and regions, were the Finnic tribe.

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In the south, in the area around Kiev, were the, a group of Slavicized tribes with origins, the to the west of the Dnieper, and the to the east. To their north and east were the, and to their south was forested land settled by Slav farmers, giving way to steppelands populated by nomadic herdsmen. Controversy persists over whether the were (Vikings) or Slavs. This uncertainty is due largely to a paucity of contemporary sources. Attempts to address this question instead rely on archaeological evidence, the accounts of foreign observers, legends and literature from centuries later. To some extent the controversy is related to the of modern states in the region. According to the ' view, the Rus' were Scandinavians, while Russian and Ukrainian nationalist historians generally argue that the Rus' were themselves Slavs.